Introduction Apple macOS, formerly known as Mac OS X and OS X, is the operating system that powers Apple’s Macintosh computers. Recognised for its stability, security, and seamless integration with Apple’s hardware ecosystem, macOS has become one of the most widely used desktop operating systems worldwide. From a digital forensics perspective, macOS devices often contain […]

Introduction Mobile phones have become an integral part of modern life, storing vast amounts of personal information including messages, photographs, emails, social media activity, location data, internet browsing history, and call records. As a result, mobile phone evidence is increasingly being relied upon in family court proceedings to establish facts, resolve disputes, and protect vulnerable […]

Introduction Cryptographic hash functions such as MD5 and the SHA family are fundamental to digital forensics, incident response, malware analysis, and evidence handling. A file hash is a mathematically generated value derived from the contents of a file. Even a single-bit alteration in a file produces a completely different hash value. Hash analysis allows investigators […]

Introduction Windows Explorer, known as File Explorer in modern versions of Microsoft Windows, is the graphical file management application that allows users to browse, access, copy, move, and manage files and folders stored on a computer. Since its introduction in Windows 95, Windows Explorer has been a core component of the Windows operating system, providing […]

WhatsApp has become one of the most widely used communication platforms in the world, with billions of messages exchanged every day. As a result, WhatsApp conversations frequently form part of investigations involving criminal cases, family disputes, employment matters, and civil litigation. One of the most common questions asked during a digital investigation is whether deleted […]